{"id":2123,"date":"2026-02-01T16:50:52","date_gmt":"2026-02-01T16:50:52","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.marriages.me.uk\/hugh\/?page_id=2123"},"modified":"2026-05-20T17:32:08","modified_gmt":"2026-05-20T17:32:08","slug":"zygalski","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/www.marriages.me.uk\/hugh\/career\/zygalski\/","title":{"rendered":"Henryk Zygalski 1908-1978"},"content":{"rendered":"

Henryk<\/b><\/span><\/span><\/span> Micha\u0142 Zygalski<\/strong> MPhil, MSc, DSc <\/span><\/span><\/span>was one of the team of three Polish mathematicians who broke the \"\"German Enigma cipher before the Second World War. This transformed Allied intelligence and laid the foundations for critical and successful cipher work by Alan Turing and others at Britain\u2019s secret World War II codebreaking headquarters at Bletchley Park.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Working within the Polish Cipher Bureau, alongside Marian Rejewski and Jerzy R\u00f3\u017cycki, Zygalski combined mathematical brilliance with exceptional personal courage. In 1938 he devised the Zygalski sheets \u2013 a painstakingly constructed system of perforated sheets that exploited a flaw in German signalling procedures. They allowed the Enigma machine settings to be deduced systematically so that the messages could then be deciphered. These methods were vital in the opening months of the war.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

In July 1939, just weeks before the invasion of Poland, the Polish cryptanalysts shared everything they knew about Enigma with British and French intelligence. This act changed the course of the war. As Poland and later France fell, Zygalski, Rejewski and R\u00f3\u017cycki escaped across Europe, and then Africa in extreme danger and using false identities. R\u00f3\u017cycki was drowned in a storm. Zygalski and Rejewski reached Portugal, boarded a Royal Navy ship to Gibraltar and flew to the UK to join the Polish Signals Battalion.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

\"March
March 1949 in Putney<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

After the war, unwilling to return to a Soviet-controlled Poland, Zygalski stayed in the UK. He taught mathematics at the Polish University College in London, which was absorbed into Battersea Polytechnic which, in 1966, then became the University of Surrey. He retired through ill health in 1968.\u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

\"\"
circa 1966<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Henryk Zygalski was one of the first mathematics lecturers at the Univers<\/span><\/span><\/span>it<\/span><\/span><\/span>y <\/span><\/span><\/span>of Surrey, shaping generations of students while his wartime achievements remained unrecognised. Only in 1974 did the Polish contribution to breaking Enigma start to become widely known and the mathematical brilliance and outstanding personal bravery of the three Polish cryptanalysts began to be recognised. <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Henryk Zygalski was awarded numerous posthumous honours including DSc <\/span><\/span><\/span>Honoris Causa <\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span>by the Polish University Abroad and the Grand Cross of the Order of <\/span><\/span><\/span>Polonia Restituta<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span>. In 2026 his legacy was formally recognised by the University of Surrey.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Timeline
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1908\u00a0 Born on 15 July in Posen, then part of the German Empire, now Pozna\u0144.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1918\u00a0 Poland gains independence from Germany.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1923\u00a0 Arthur Scherbius launches prototype Enigma machine.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1926\u00a0 Undergraduate at Pozna\u0144 University. Poland starts intercepting German Enigma messages.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1928\u00a0 Marian Rejewski, Jerzy R\u00f3\u017cycki and Henryk Zygalski selected for code-breaking course: all were also fluent in German.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1931\u00a0 Graduates with MPhil and all three work for Polish Cipher Bureau.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1932\u00a0 Marian Rejewski reverse-engineers the Enigma machine, the first step towards decrypting Enigma messages.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1938\u00a0 Invents <\/span><\/span><\/span>Zygalski sheets<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span> to detect Enigma machine settings.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1939\u00a0 July: Polish cryptanalysts meet with British and French allies at Pyry near Warsaw<\/a> to share information and expertise. <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1939\u00a0 September: As the German army approaches Poland, the three cryptanalysts leave for France, via Romania and Italy.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1939\u00a0 October: take up deciphering Enigma near Paris.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1940\u00a0 Turing meets with Rejewski, R\u00f3\u017cycki and Zygalski in Paris. After France is invaded, the Poles fly to North Africa to get false identities.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1942\u00a0 The Polish cryptanalysts return to Uz\u00e8s, in Vichy France but R\u00f3\u017cycki is drowned <\/span><\/span><\/span>en route. <\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span>German army occupies southern France<\/span><\/span><\/span>.<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1943\u00a0 Rejewski and Zygalski escape to Spain; on the way they are robbed and imprisoned but released. They cross to Portugal to board a British naval vessel, HMS<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span>\u00a0Scottish<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span>, in Lisbon for Gibraltar. They fly to the UK and join the Polish Signals Battalion at Boxmoor, near Hemel Hempstead. <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1945\u00a0 World War II ends in Europe.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1947\u00a0 Polish University College established in Knightsbridge and Putney. Zygalski is appointed to teach mathematics.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1949\u00a0 Described by his tutor as \u201cquite a good mathematician \u201c. Becomes a British citizen.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1950\u00a0 Zygalski is awarded London University MSc.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1951\u00a0 Battersea Polytechnic takes over Putney Buildings.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1954\u00a0 Death of Alan Turing.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1966\u00a0 Battersea Polytechnic becomes the University of Surrey and moves to Guildford.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1968\u00a0 Zygalski suffers a stroke and retires. His speech is impaired.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1973\u00a0 Evidence begins to emerge in Poland of involvement in code-breaking of Rejewski, R\u00f3\u017cycki and Zygalski.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1974\u00a0 Role of Bletchley Park becomes known for the first time.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1977\u00a0 Awarded DSc <\/span><\/span><\/span>Honoris Causa <\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span>by the Polish University Abroad.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1978\u00a0 Dies in Liss, Hampshire on 30 August and is <\/span><\/span><\/span>cremated<\/span><\/span><\/span> <\/b>in Chichester.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

2000\u00a0 With Rejewski and R\u00f3\u017cycki, awarded <\/span><\/span><\/span>Grand Cross of the Order of <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span>Polonia Restituta<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/p>\n

2002\u00a0 Memorial to Rejewski, R\u00f3\u017cycki and Zygalski unveiled at Bletchley Park.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

2007\u00a0 Monument to Rejewski, R\u00f3\u017cycki and Zygalski unveiled in Pozna\u0144 Castle.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

2014\u00a0 Rejewski, R\u00f3\u017cycki and Zygalski given <\/span><\/span><\/span>Milestone Award<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span> by <\/span><\/span><\/span>Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

2018\u00a0 Memorial stone to Zygalski unveiled in Chichester Crematorium by the Polish Ambassador and Dr Jeremy Russell (Zygalski\u2019s nephew).<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

2026\u00a0 Launch of Polish Navy signal intelligence ship <\/span><\/span><\/span>ORP Henryk Zygalski.<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/p>\n

2026\u00a0 Zygalski recognised at the University of Surrey.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

<\/div><\/span><\/p>\n

The Polish Cipher Bureau
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The Polish Cipher Bureau was part of the Polish Army and a development of Polish cryptography from World War I.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

In 1929 a mysterious package arrived for a German firm in Warsaw, with a declaration that it was radio equipment. The firm pressed for the package to be returned straight-away to Germany, saying that it had been sent by mistake, but the Polish authorities took advantage of a weekend to open the package, see that it was a cipher machine, examine it closely and put it back.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

This proved to be a \u2018commercial\u2019 model of the Enigma machine. More forbidding was the military model, which had additional security features, including secret wiring. The number one challenge for the Cipher Bureau was to understand its operation and then to devise techniques to discover the protocol used by the Germans to set the adjustable components of the machine (rotor order, starting position, cross-pluggings, &c.) when they sent messages.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Fortunately the Cipher Bureau had a boost when an officer from French Military Intelligence shared a couple of documents acquired from a German spy. These were the operating instructions and set-up guide, with photographs, for the military model Enigma machine. There were, however, no wiring diagrams.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Setting to work with these documents, a sheaf of intercepts, and a \u2018commercial model\u2019 Enigma machine bought by the Cipher Bureau in 1926, Marian Rejewski \u2013 one of three mathematicians recruited by the Cipher Bureau, the others being Henryk Zygalski and Jerzy R\u00f3\u017cycki \u2013 began to use his expertise in Group Theory to create permutation equations modelling the behaviour of the military Enigma machine. Painstakingly and with some inspired guesswork he was able to reverse-engineer the machine. <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

That work enabled the Cipher Bureau to construct replica Enigma machines and to find out how the adjustable components were set. The adjustments were made regularly \u2013 by the time of the outbreak of World War II, daily \u2013 creating a new puzzle with every change. In this task, all three Polish mathematicians made significant breakthroughs. One was the development of <\/span><\/span><\/span>Zygalski sheets <\/i>for detecting how the Enigma machine had been set up that day: this<\/span><\/span><\/span>\u00a0enabled Enigma messages to be decrypted for the crucial opening months of the war.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

In July 1939, only weeks before the outbreak of the war, Poland gave the Allies all its knowhow on Enigma, transforming overnight the Allies\u2019 ability to master Enigma. Broken Enigma messages formed the core of Allied military intelligence against Germany. The war may have had a very different trajectory without that critical Polish contribution.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

The Polish University Abroad in London
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The Polish University Abroad, or the Polish University in Exile, was established in London in 1949.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

J J O’Connor and E F Robertson<\/a> (St Andrews University*) write:<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

During the war a Polish Government-in-Exile operated in Britain and in 1942 it set up a Commission for Higher Technical Education. The object of the Commission was to train scientists and engineers who would be in a position to lead reconstruction in Poland after the war ended. However, after the war ended, Poland became part of the Soviet system and, although Poles could return to their home country from Britain, nevertheless, they knew that the Communist government would treat them with considerable suspicion. <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Although some returned, as for example <\/span><\/span><\/span>Rejewski<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/a><\/span> did, nevertheless the majority, including Zygalski, decided to remain in Britain. The original purpose of the Commission for Higher Technical Education having gone, it became, by Act of Parliament, the Polish University College in 1947. <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

The College, based in eight buildings between Knightsbridge and Putney, taught courses with the aim that students would sit examinations for external University of London degrees. A student was taught in Polish for two years and then courses would be in English. Some features of a Polish education were retained, such as students writing a thesis in their final year, but the curricula were essentially those of the University of London. <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Zygalski was appointed to teach at the Polish University College from the time it was set up. <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

The Polish University College was amalgamated with Battersea Polytechnic Institute in 1951. Battersea Polytechnic Institute became the University of Surrey in 1966. The Polish University Abroad continues to operate in France and Germany.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

*reproduced with permission.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

<\/div>\n

Zygalski sheets
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Henryk Zygalski\u2019s most famous contribution to Enigma codebreaking was the <\/span><\/span><\/span>Zygalski sheets<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span>. These were large, square, perforated cardboard sheets which enabled the codebreakers to find how the Enigma machine had been set up for encryption.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Before the war, when Zygalski started work on the problem, the German military Enigma machine used three interchangeable rotors which could be inserted into any of the three slots in the machine. Then the rotors would be turned to a chosen starting-position, with one of the 26 letters engraved on the rim of each rotor facing uppermost. There were 6 possible ways to insert the rotors and 17,576 possibilities for the rotor orientation.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

German signalling protocol required the message sender to notify the starting-position to the recipient at the beginning of the signal. It would be foolish for this information to be sent without disguising it, so the Enigma machine itself was used to encipher the starting-position. The operator would choose three random letters, set the machine up with those three letters uppermost, and type in the three actual starting-position letters to get an enciphered version. Then the two sets of three letters \u2013 the first three random letters, and the enciphered version of the starting-position would be sent to the recipient. This ought to have been secure, if the enemy did not know the rotor order, cross-plugging, or other variables in use on that day. <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Zygalski exploited a flaw in the protocol which was that the starting-position was being sent <\/span><\/span><\/span>twice over<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span>. Codebreaking theory holds that repetition of a piece of clear text in the same cipher system can be exploited to break the cipher. Here the repetition was tiny \u2013 three letters only \u2013 but that was enough. <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Zygalski\u2019s method was to look for repetitions in the enciphered double triplet appearing at the start of intercepted messages. If the sender had chosen, say, ABC as the actual starting-position, this might come out as WFTYFG in the double triplet: here, with F as the middle letter. Other double-triplets might have repetitions in the first and fourth, or third and sixth positions. These repetitions can only arise with certain rotor orders and a limited number of starting-positions. <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

An exhaustive tabulation of all possible rotor orders and all possible starting-positions was made. The results were punched out onto the large cardboard sheets which are now known by Zygalski\u2019s name. Each sheet would be ruled into squares for all 26 possible positions of the right-hand rotor (vertical axis) and all 26 positions of the middle rotor (horizontal axis). Holes were punched in squares where the three rotors could allow for a repeat in the double triplet. A separate sheet was made for each of the 26 positions of the left-hand rotor. <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

The basic principle in using <\/span><\/span><\/span>Zygalski sheets<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span> was to stack them on top of each other on a light-table, one sheet for each signal with a repeat in the double triplet. The sheets would be offset to reflect the difference of initial set-up between the signals. Then the codebreaker\u2019s task was to find a set of sheets \u2013 modelling a rotor order and start position \u2013 for which the holes lined up and the light shone through. <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

During the course of the war, Germany produced Enigma machines with more rotors, so were much more secure. This would have increased the number of necessary <\/span><\/span><\/span>Zygalski sheets<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span>, making the procedure unusable. That was why Bletchley Park had to develop the Bombe machine, an electro-mechanical device for testing possible rotor settings, developed from an earlier Polish design.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

There is a Science Museum article on Zygalski sheets here.<\/a><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

Henryk Zygalski and Alan Turing
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The stories of Henryk Zygalski and Alan Turing overlap in that they were both mathematicians who found their way into the problem of breaking the Enigma cipher, and both had associations with Guildford. Henryk Zygalski\u2019s work on the Enigma problem began around 1933, shortly after Marian Rejewski solved the wiring of the Enigma machine; Alan Turing\u2019s six years later, in early 1939, when he was put on the \u2018Emergency List\u2019 of standby recruits to British codebreaking in preparation for an expected war. Zygalski\u2019s work on the system ended in 1942 when the German army seized the south of France, forcing him to seek an escape. Alan Turing\u2019s ended at around the same time, when he was redeployed onto the problem of secure encipherment of voice calls.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Alan Turing was not part of the British team that went to Warsaw in July 1939, and came back with the astonishing gift of everything the Polish cryptanalysts knew about Enigma. When the war broke out, he was brought to Bletchley Park, whereas the Poles had to escape from Poland as their country was overrun in September 1939. They ended up in France, stationed with the codebreakers of French Military Intelligence, until in turn France was invaded and they had to escape again to North Africa.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

In the short period when Henryk Zygalski was based near Paris, in early 1940, the British were busy creating a replica set of <\/span><\/span><\/span>Zygalski sheets<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span> for their own use. They also promised to send a set across to France. And they were puzzled: using the sheets wasn\u2019t easy, and the British codebreakers struggled to make Zygalski\u2019s system work.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

The answer was a conference: a senior British Enigma expert should go to France and consult with the Polish experts, taking the sheets with him. The envoy chosen for the mission was Alan Turing.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

So, in early 1940, there took place the only known encounter between Alan Turing and Henryk Zygalski. Marian Rejewski said that \u201cWe treated [Turing] as a younger colleague who had specialised in mathematical logic and was just starting out in cryptology\u201d. Given the imbalance of experience, that sounds like a fair assessment. The Poles and their French hosts took Turing to dinner; the historian W\u0142adys\u0142aw Kozaczuk picks up the story.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

\u2018The attention of the diners was drawn to a crystal flower glass with flowers, placed on the middle of the tablecloth. They were delicate rosy-lilac flowers with slender funnel-shaped calyces\u2026 Turing\u2026 gazed in silence at the flowers and the dry lanceolate leaves. He was brought back from his reverie, however, by the Latin name, <\/span><\/span><\/span>Colchicum autumnale<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span> (autumn crocus, or meadow saffron), spoken by the mathematician-geographer Jerzy R\u00f3\u017cycki. \u201cWhy, that\u2019s a powerful poison!\u201d said Turing in a raised voice.\u201d<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

The Poles explained how to use the <\/span><\/span><\/span>Zygalski sheets<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span> best and solved the puzzle which had been confusing the British at Bletchley. In his turn, Turing was able to explain something which had puzzled the Poles, namely the peculiar measurements of the British version of the <\/span><\/span><\/span>Zygalski sheets<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span>, whose holes were 8.5 mm square. \u2018That\u2019s perfectly obvious,\u2019 he explained, \u2018It\u2019s simply one-third of an inch.\u2019<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

The other connection between Turing and Zygalski is Guildford, but that is a more tenuous link. Turing never lived there, though his parents\u2019 retirement home and his brother\u2019s family home were both in the town and he was a frequent, if irregular, visitor. Zygalski\u2019s teaching career in the University of Surrey began after Turing\u2019s death. <\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n

Acknowledgements
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Many people have helped in preparing the text for this webpage, including Henryk Zygalski\u2019s nephew and nieces \u2013 Dr Jeremy Russell, Georgina Donaldson and Anna Zygalska-Cannon. Special thanks are due to Sir Dermot Turing who did a large part of the drafting, Professor David Uzzell and Professor <\/span><\/span><\/span>Robert Gaw\u0142owski.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

All photographs are <\/span><\/span>\u00a9\u00a0<\/span><\/span>Anna Zygalska-Cannon. No part of this webpage may be reproduced without permission.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

<\/div>\n

Bibliography
\n<\/span><\/span><\/span>Read more<\/span>

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Gaw\u0142owski, R<\/span><\/span><\/span> <\/b>(2023) <\/span><\/span><\/span>The First Enigma Codebreaker.<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span> Pen and Sword Military, Barnsley, UK. ISBN 978-1-3990-6910-6\u00a0 \u00a0<\/span><\/span><\/span>This is a biography of Marian Rejewski who passed the baton to Alan Turing.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Turing, D (<\/span><\/span><\/span>2018) <\/span><\/span><\/span>X Y & Z: The real story of how Enigma was broken<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span>. The History Press, Brimscombe Port, UK. ISBN 978-0-7509-8782-0<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Turing, D (20<\/span><\/span><\/span>23) <\/span><\/span><\/span>Enigma traitors: The Struggle to Lose the Cipher War<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span>. The History Press, Brimscombe Port, UK. ISBN 978-1-8039-9169-6\u00a0 \u00a0 <\/span><\/span><\/span>The story of how excellence in codebreaking was nearly betrayed by incompetence in codemaking.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Turing, D (2025) <\/span><\/span><\/span>Misread signals: How History Overlooked Women Codebreakers<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span>. History Press, Brimscombe Port,<\/span><\/span><\/span> UK. <\/span><\/span><\/span>ISBN: 978-1-8039-9793-3<\/span> <\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Kapera, Z.J (2<\/span><\/span><\/span>015) <\/span><\/span><\/span>The Triumph of Zygalski\u2019s Sheets<\/i><\/span><\/span><\/span>. The Enigma Press, Mogilany, Poland and M&M Baldwin, Cleobury Mortimer, UK. ISBN 978-83-86110-79-7<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

<\/div>\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Henryk Micha\u0142 Zygalski MPhil, MSc, DSc was one of the team of three Polish mathematicians who broke the German Enigma cipher before the Second World War. This transformed Allied intelligence and laid the foundations for critical and successful cipher work by Alan Turing and others at Britain\u2019s secret World War II codebreaking headquarters at Bletchley Park. Working within the Polish Cipher Bureau, alongside Marian Rejewski and Jerzy R\u00f3\u017cycki, Zygalski combined mathematical brilliance with exceptional personal courage. In 1938 he devised…<\/p>\n

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